A
Literature Review
by Arch. Ma. Elena E. Lamasan
Abstract
Student’s residences, their workplaces
and communities are part of what we carefully consider in territoriality. How these are
perceived and defended depends on
the levels that differs in each individual.
As these young adults undergo the learning stage in life, their definition of personal space varies depending on one’s history and personal upbringing until they
become mature working individuals. Territorial
infringement results when spaces are invaded, violated and contaminated.
Our capacity to
control the environment and each
individual’s expectation on it dictates our emotional and social well being. It depends on who we are and how we perceived
the environment that helps us to understand
and to make choices. A person’s ability to
cope with the environment stressors and connect with them emotionally is
in great part, dependent on his emotional, mental and physical health. Very evident
environmental challenge is the population
density and overcrowding as a problem in highly urbanized city like Manila in
the Philippines. The effects of
overcrowding on the emotional and mental state are detrimental in the growing
years of these young adults. With the
problem stated, this study will
investigate the hypothesis that adequate
open spaces are helpful for students health and wellbeing.
I.
Introduction
“Our
love of home is in turn an acknowledgement of the degree to which our identity is not self-determined. We need
a home in the psychological sense as much as we need one in the physical: to
compensate for a vulnerability. We need a refuge to shore up our states of
mind, because so much of the world is opposed to our allegiances. We need our
room to align us to be desirable of ourselves and to keep alive the important,
evanescent side of us.” This is what
Alain de Botton says in his book titled, The Architecture of Happiness.
Such
a pacifying and positive description of what supposed to be a “home” a residential aspect as a primary territory for
each human being in this world. And whoever are we in this scene, an Architect
who designed that physical structure,
the builder who constructed those walls and its structural members or the occupant who gives warm and
life to this composition, all of us, has
a participation in making this haven, a
great determinant of the whole
human wellbeing. Many factors
determines the condition of this primary territory. The sense of place and our feeling of safety
is governed by the geographical location,
the economy, the neighbors, the utilities
system of the community and the
architectural structure itself , all composes the natural and the built
environment.
This
study on the Analysis of the Effects of Overcrowding in University Belt
Residential Areas, Manila is
discussed starting with the phenomenon of Urbanism in the context of
the World and to the prominent cities in the Philippines. The topics are well presented for the reader to have an order of
understanding from the macro level to the micro level of the environmental
psychology issues. In detailed, are discussed some local and national
government laws and policies that gives solutions to Noise Pollution and the
Green Environment Laws in general, affecting
the Manileno young adults.
The
students or the young adults residing in apartments, condominiums and other
owned or rented residences are the main subjects of this study. The psychological effects, definition of Spaces, coping with Stress, arousal, territoriality, emotional and
physical aspects on the effects of overcrowding are the core of the topic in this study.
An
appreciation of the significance of open spaces as a relief , both physical and psychological to the human
being constitute a larger part in the discussion. This is to validate the
hypothesis that adequate Open spaces is helpful to the health and well
being of young adults. Realization of
this matter can be one of the consideration in designers PDR or predesign
research to evaluate clients requirements
prior to construction. This is also a signal for behavior setting solutions in
urban planning.
The
last part of the body of this literature review
shows recommendations compiled from various research groups on how to
mitigate overcrowding and to achieve an individual who can endure hazardous
stimuli and capacitated with a coping ability to blend with both the built and natural environment.
II.
Human
Health and Environment
The
population of the City of Manila is
increasing at the rate of 0.44
percent annually. This is published on the
Article : Population of the City of Manila
Climbed to 1.7 Million
( Results from the 2010 Census of
Population and Housing) released last July 26, 2013 thru the website of the Philippine Statistic
Authority, https://psa.gov.ph/content/population-city-manila-climbed-17-million-results-2010-census-population-and-housing,
Base on the Census of Population and
Housing (CPH), the City of Manila, a
highly urbanized city in the National Capital Region, posted a total population
of 1,652,171 persons as of May 1, 2010. This is larger by 71,089 persons
compared to its total population of 1, 581,082 persons counted in the 2000 CPH.
The increase in the population count from 2000 to 2010 translated to an average
annual population growth rate ( PGR) of 0.44 percent. This is higher than the
negative 0.13 percent annual PGR of the city between the census years 1990 and
2000. The census showed that 159,027 number of households owned/ being
amortised/owner-like and there are
153,266 number of households rented.
In
this Capital City of the country, when
people think about environment and health, they focus on things like pollution,
traffic problems , congestion, informal settlers, waste disposal and flooding, more than anything else. Though
green building ordinances had already been implemented in Quezon City and in
other cities together with the compliance with Executive Order 301 Series 2004, which directs all
departments, bureaus, agencies and offices under the Executive Branch of
government to establish a Green Procurement
Program, a part of this concern is answered. This directive, the NELP-GCP will act as the
3rd party verifier for the government’s eco-purchases. The Green Building Requirements are already
part of the Building Permit Requirements of the Department of Public Works and
Highways (DPWH). Thus, many advocacies and cause-oriented groups are vocal in
this concern. Aside from PhilGBC, the Philippine Green Building Council, there
are other monitoring and implementing arms cooperated in by professionals in
the design and construction industry.
However,
pollution is only one of the many
aspects of the relationship between healthy people and a healthy environment.
How individuals and societies react with the environment has substantial
implications for lifelong physical and mental health.
III.
Crime
Prevention and the Defensible Space Theory
There
is a common notion that says,
grime causes crime. This is
usually linked to neighborhood in highly urbanized cities where social ,
cultural and economic factors affects the local crimes and the young adults are
in a disadvantage position. A
neighborhood character and culture is contagious, and what the young adults see by their eyes and hear by
their ears are not deleted until their years of maturity.
Overcrowding
or congestion in urban communities in Manila
is an agent to this. It makes the place vulnerable that will be
harmfully contagious if relegated to the background. Mainly because of the vulnerability of dilapidated scenes that invites intrusion. Unrepaired gates, broken glass windows,
unstable sidewalk canopy and even sidewalk illegal parking done day and night
are hot in the commitment of crime.
It
is in neighborhood leadership or the
occupants of the place to defend their place. In the Defensible Space Theory ( DST), as a
means of empowering the residents of these areas and other urban built environment defend
their place, the degree on how the occupants defends its space determines the degree of the
occurrence of crimes in the environment.
Oscar
Newman, the originator of this idea says that “ physical environment can create
perceived territories and certain
physical features that tend to encourage people to appropriate and exercise territorial control – which reduces
both the opportunity for and the fear of crime”. Understandably, when people claims ownership,
watches over it, takes care of it, the space is less likely to be
violated. In environmental design, the
Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a multi-disciplinary approach to deterring criminal behavior. Based
on Wikipedia, retrieved on September 12, 2015, on Article, “Crime prevention through environmental
design” , “CPTED strategies rely upon the ability to influence offender
decisions that precede criminal acts. Generally speaking, most implementations
of CPTED occur solely within the urbanized, built environment. Specifically altering the
physical design of the communities in which humans reside and congregate in
order to deter criminal activity is the main goal of CPTED. CPTED principles of
design affect elements of the built environment ranging from the small-scale
(such as the strategic use of shrubbery and other vegetation) to the
overarching, including building form of an entire urban neighborhood and the
amount of opportunity for "eyes on the street".
Some of the published strategies for the built environment says that CPTED strategies rely upon the ability to influence offender decisions
that precede criminal acts. Research into criminal behavior shows that the decision to offend or not to offend
is more influenced by cues to the perceived risk of being caught than by cues
to reward or ease of entry. Certainty of being caught is the main deterrence
for criminals not the severity of the punishment so by raising the certainty of
being captured, criminal actions will decrease. Consistent with this research,
CPTED based strategies emphasize enhancing the perceived risk of detection and
apprehension.
A.
Natural
surveillance and Landscaping Barriers
The
Landscaping Network in the Topic: Landscape Noise Reduction had mentioned Four
Easy Steps to minimize noise and impose
psychological barriers. These are provisions of plants that may absorb noise,
deflect and reflect noise, refract noise
and to create white noise which at the same time implies “ barriers to entry or seclude” .
B.
Helpful
Social Learning Theories
We learn by first observing others and
eventually reproducing their actions. Behavior modeling is intrinsic to all
behavior settings. And these are all for the positive result if the modeling
observed is a good act. But in city areas where varied cultural influences has
set-in, modeling for the young adults can be for the bad side if not supervised
and monitored.
Albert Bandura, another proponent of
the social learning theory as published in the book Environmental Psychology in
Design by Dan Kopec, agreed that “personality
is an interaction among the environment, behavior, and the person’s
psychological processes and that the environment and a person’s behavior induce
each other ( a concept called reciprocal determinism.) The importance of
observational learning or modeling as a primary means of obtaining
reinforcement is stressed because people naturally observe, process and imitate
of others to gain approval, acceptance or rewards.”
Young adults needs monitoring and
parental guidance to gain control over peer pressures and bad influences. Being
situated in crowded areas, the person cannot fully change the environment event
but can do cognitive control by changing the way in which he/she conceive of an
environment. Here follows the decisional control, the ability to choose a
response.
C.
Government
Intervention
In the government side, the City of
Manila, the Official Gazzette, Republic Act No. 10630: “An Act Establishing a
Comprehensive Juvenile Justice and Welfare System, Creating the Juvenile
justice and Welfare Council under the Department of Social Welfare and
Development, Appropriating Funds Therefore, and for Other Purposes.” http://www.gov.ph/2013/10/03/republic-act-no-10630/
. This is to coordinate the implementation of the juvenile intervention
programs and activities by national government agencies and other activities
which may have an important bearing on the success of the entire national
juvenile intervention program.
The
Clean and Green program is being reinforced
by the local government. The Proclamation
No. 244 declaring
September of every year as National Clean-up Month and the 17th to the 23rd of
September of each year as the World Clean and Green Week is imposed to support
this purpose.
VI. Understanding Territoriality, Privacy, and Personal Space
A.
Privacy
As
fully stated in the Book, Environmental Psychology for Design by Dan Kopec,
many researchers elaborated that the
word “Privacy” which involves more than just control of physical
access, our visual, acoustical, olfactory, or informational privacy can also be
infringed upon.
Alan
Westin, as written in the same book, described four aspects of privacy such as,
Solitude, Intimacy, Anonymity
and Reserve. Solitude refers to the state of being alone, free from
physical invasion. Intimacy refers to a group privacy and emotional bonds like lovers who want to be alone. Anonymity
is the desire to be invisible or to be unknown to others, is a form of privacy commonly lost by
celebrities and other who want to be among others but do not want to personally
interact with or be identified by them. Reserve refers to the distance people create between themselves and
others by erecting psychological
barriers to protect inner thoughts and feelings, in public or in private.
Perception
is a revealing component of population density in that, if ample space is
perceived, the crowding effects diminish. Therefore, changing the perception of
space is as influential as actually providing more space. According to Straub
(2007), in the online article:
Population Density and Noise - A Research Paper by Dra. Monetha Williams
, retrieved on website: https://www.allbestessays.com/Psychology/Population-And-Noise-Density-Paper/38852.html,
“ the crowding effects of population
density are not inevitable, and perhaps designing space in such a way to appear
bigger than it actually is can affect psychological crowding. In any event, mitigating the perception of
crowding is of consequence as space becomes a limited resource, and perceiving
ample space has far-reaching effects on subjective well-being and health. When individuals perceive ample space, they
report feeling a stronger sense of control over their environment and are less
prone to anxiety and stress .”
B. Personal Space
Referring to the same online article on Population Density and Noise, stated
that “personal space is the physical distance we choose by which to maintain
interpersonal relationships (Hutchinson & Kowalski, 1999). Edward Hall
defined four basic interpersonal distance zones: intimate (0-18”), personal (
18” to 4’) social ( 4’ to 12’). Personal
space and territoriality are two mechanisms for maintaining privacy. As defined
by Sommer (1969) personal space is “an area with invisible boundaries
surrounding a person’s body into which intruders may not come” . Altman (1981)
suggests such space is changeable, similar to privacy, and varies between
individuals, situations, and culture. Neuroscientific research claims personal
space is created and mediated by the human brain, and although boundaries shift
within circumstances, it is of value and consequence to all people (Kennedy,
Gläscher, Tyszka, & Adolphs, 2009)”.
C. Territoriality
Human
territoriality encompasses temporarily durable preventive and reactive
behaviors including perceptions, use and defense of places, people, objects,
and ideas by means of verbal, self-marker, and environmental prop behaviors in
response to the actual or implied presence of others and in response to
properties of the environment, and is geared to satisfying certain primary and
secondary motivational states of individuals and groups (Edney, 1974, p.
963).
Territoriality,
privacy and personal space involve personal choice and individual perceptions
of the use of space for normal functioning. Depending a person’s history and
upbringing, the psychological effects of these perceptions vary between
individuals, but undeniably, the limited space has an eventual effect on
humans, more so if this is not engineered.
According
to Clayton & Myers, 2008, in urban environments, when space is limited,
aggressive and violent behavior, poor academic performance, and more negative
social interaction between community members is observed. Intrusive noise
causes limited to severe annoyance, depending on how individuals interpret and
perceive the intrusion (Straub, 2007). Noise reduction strategies can range
from simple to complex, but are worthwhile especially in cases in which
individuals have little control over anxiety- and stress-provoking noise.
D. Territoriality, Privacy, and
Personal Space as Population Density Increases
Straub (2007) refers to a study by John Calhoun by which he experiments with
population density within the living conditions of rats. In this study, rats
behaved normally by all standards when there was ample living space, although
as the population increased, the rat’s social environment deteriorated. They
fought, became more territorial, infant mortality increased sharply,
reproductive capacity diminished, and some rats became cannibalistic. Although
these discoveries may not necessarily translate to human behavior under similar
conditions, population density certainly has practical affects on populations.
Population
density affects people, and it also contributes to the psychological effects of
crowding whereby people feel confined and limited with less access to
necessities. Crowding has been linked to aggression, social withdrawal,
increased criminal acts, and inappropriate social interaction (Stokols, 1972).
To decrease the symptoms of crowding, it is essential to preserve privacy,
personal space, and honor territoriality as a basic human social need. As the
resource of space decreases, privacy and personal space demand greater
acknowledgment to prevent psychological affects. Without privacy and personal
space people tend to feel less control, more competition, and have an increased
tendency to react negatively to minor annoyances (Straub, 2007).
VII. The Effect of Nature on Individuals Living
in Urban Environments
Managed
natural settings such as zoos, parks and other green spaces can create support
and social context for interaction with nature. Not only does such interaction
provide interaction, but also nurtures an environmental identity that is so
often inhibited in urban living situations. Natural settings found within urban
living areas encourage a perception that people should, and need to convene
with nature. Maller et al. (2005), refer to beliefs promoted during the Civil
War that claimed the influence of the natural environment on people’s health
reduced disease, promoted health, supported community health and reduced crime.
Contemporary evidence continues to supports these theories.
A. Noise and its Effects on Individuals
Health
psychologists have studied the negative health affects of chronically noisy
environments. In human and animal studies, the damaging effects of noise raise
blood pressure and cortisol levels, which indicates increased levels of stress
(Straub, 2007). Chronic exposure to noise can increase the risk of
cardiovascular disease and decrease learning ability. Children are especially
vulnerable to the disruptive effects of chronic noise as they learn maladaptive
skills that provoke them to block specific stimuli. This can be problematic
since children do not have the capacity to fully understand which stimuli
should be blocked and which is essential to their learning experience (Straub,
2007). Verbal skills are decreased because when children block noise they are
likely to block verbal elements as well.
According
to Straub (2007), investigation into chronic noise effects in laboratory
settings showed louder noise can disrupt short-term memory and decrease the
ability to perform simple tasks. Individuals vary in their appraisal of noise,
and the more disturbing the individual finds the noise, the greater the affect
the noise will have on the individual. Even though noise may not be directly
responsible for stress, the affects on sleep, anxiety provoked, and subjective
attitude toward the noise has a direct effect on individual health (Straub,
2007). Noise, over which individuals have little to no control has a more severe
affect on stress levels.
b. Crowding and Density
Crowding happens when there are too many people, too
little space, or both. The three components of crowding are the situation, the
emotion (affect) and the behavior
produced by the emotion. The nature and
organization of an environment make up the situation: this will evoke an
emotional reaction, which, if unresolved, will result in a behavioral
manifestation. Once we begin feeling the negative pressures of density, our
predominating concerns are loss of control, the inability to
act toward a particular goal, having a limited number of options or any
combination of these.
High density is a source of psychological arousal
and stress as demonstrated by numerous laboratory and field studies of its
effects on skin conductance and perspiration, cardiac malfunctions,
including blood pressure and other
stress indicators.
Our experience of overcrowding within the
environment depends on our perceived levels of control over it, our purpose for
being it, our expectations of it and the others sharing it. Studies suggest that feelings of crowding are
intensified when people are in an environment with others whom they perceive to
be different from themselves. In dormitories
in a nearby university, six college girls are harmonious in a 4m x6m room with
3 double deck beds. They call them
selves as “bedspacers” which
means, they pay as per the bed occupancy per month, not the room occupancy.
Still they won’t feel crowded since they came from the same province and study
in the same school who feels a
belongingness and share many things in common. But, there is a
psychological overcrowding to the 3 girls of same room sleeping I three single
beds if they are unknown to each other and don’t have good things in common.
Many write ups illustrates that the feelings of
crowding are highly contingent on individually personality factors. For
example, people with a strong internal focus
of control believe they can control many aspects of their lives and will attempts to control situations presented
by crowded environment, which increase their odds of incurring greater level of stress. In extreme
situations, individuals subjected to crowding may engage in behaviors related
to learned helplessness. High social density is a more source of emotional
arousal and feelings over
anxiety- and stress-provoking noise.
IX.
DISCUSSION
The previous readings directly showed the social
and psychological effects of overcrowding on Health as it poses direct and
indirect health risks to all aspects of the population not just young adults
but likewise, the elderly, the disable and the young children.
Overcrowding
results in insufficient ventilation in homes, causing or exacerbating
respiratory illness. Susceptibility to
disease, the severity of diseases, the spreading of illness, and the mortality
due to disease all increase as a result of social and physical overcrowding. Overcrowding
exacerbates health risks related to insufficient and poor water supply and poor
sanitation systems in the camps. Likelihood of accidents in the home and
community increases. Overcrowding physically and emotionally overburdens
mothers and other caregivers, increasing health risks of dependents. Also, lack of space and overcrowding directly impacts on the physical development
and psychological well being of disabled residents.
The
Social effect is evident in far- reaching social problems by placing a strain
on social relations within the home and community. Overcrowding in schools and
homes is linked to substandard education and functional illiteracy, and may be
related to increased child labor. It is a 'push factor' in the decisions
leading to girls' early marriage (before the age of 18) which, in turn, leads
to serious health and social ramifications for women and children. Overcrowding affects women's access to social
and economic resources; it increases their responsibilities in the home and
burdens their time. Direct and indirect
psychological effects result from overcrowding. Very sensitive is the lack of privacy is linked to depression and
other negative psychological outcomes. Overcrowding
contributes to psychological frustrations which, in turn, have a bearing on
behavioral responses and residents' ability to cope with the conditions.
There
are few programs on the part of NGOs, and insufficient resources allocated, to
address social and psychological effects of overcrowding. Nonetheless, there is
a great deal of concern by stakeholders about the issue and a belief that it is
of critical importance.
In
Article IV, Crime Prevention and the Defensible Space Theory, the elements of
CTPD is discussed where the word “ environment” is commonly used to refer
to external environment of the place.
Natural surveillance is also introduce as it increase the threat of
apprehension by taking steps to increase the perception that people can be
seen. Natural surveillance occurs by designing the placement of physical
features, activities and people in such a way as to maximize visibility and
foster positive social interaction among legitimate users of private and public space. Potential offenders feel increased
scrutiny and limitations on their escape routes. These are engineering
solutions to impose barriers and to set behavior for safety.
According
to Arch Felino A. Palafox Jr., “Open
spaces are also important for emergency preparedness. The open space at the
ground level must be able to accommodate the number of residents in the
building, plus the fire trucks, ambulances, and other emergency vehicles. There
should be at least one square meter allotted per person for evacuation. I have
observed that some developments with tall buildings in Metro Manila do not have
enough open spaces for such emergencies. Many tall buildings want to reach the
sky but do not know how to meet the ground. Moreover, our building codes allow
high-rises to only have two meters of space between tall buildings. Without
enough distance, these buildings will hit each other during big earthquakes,
which will cause greater damage to life and property.”
X.
CONCLUSION
The psychological/emotional
benefits from contact with nature and
mentally in communication with nature are widely recognized as relieving stress
and tension and diminishing anxiety. These benefits may become more prominent
as the global burden of disease changes over time. Exposure to open space, and
green space in particular, is important in promoting restoration and
relaxation, and reducing stress. A number of studies have investigated the
impact of green space on mental health.
Ulrich, in his write up I, Ulrich RS.
1979. Visual landscapes and psychological wellbeing. Landscape Research, found
Americans’ stress levels to be less after exposure to nature scenes, compared
with urban scenes. In contrast to nature
scenery, urban scenes lacking natural elements tend to work against emotional
wellbeing, significantly increasing sadness. They found later that natural
settings’ restore positive effects, reduce anger/aggression and reduce fear.
According to Cohen, D.A. et al. 2008. The built
environment and collective efficacy. Health
& Place, 14(2), 198-208, “Parks
are considered community assets and bring people in the surrounding areas to a
common place for leisure purposes, a time when people are more likely to be
open to what they see around them and receptive to others, because they are
recreating together and sharing a common space”. Active
lifestyles depend, as much upon environmental settings as upon individual will.
Open spaces, and especially green spaces, promote healthy behaviors by
providing an accessible, affordable and enjoyable place to be physically
active. Open spaces encourage walking and outdoor activities such as outdoor
games, sports, and cycling, increasingly recognized as some of the best ways to
improve physical health and mental wellbeing.
The joint efforts of Local Government in Metro
Manila ( LGU) is promoting the maintenance of open spaces and these are almost within the
range of reach of young adults in the city. Some these are the Rizal Park, Paco Park,
Washington Sycip Park , Legaspi Active Park, Track 30th ,
Garden Park 6, and the Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife are some of the
examples.
According to Chris Crawford, “A city
with great parks , trails, and recreational amenities attracts talented and
educated people because it is viewed as a good place to live”.
References:
Books:
1.
J.P. Chaplin, Ph.D., DICTIONARY OF
PSYCHOLOGY, Second Revised Edition ( 1985, October) Random House Inc. USA
2.
Dr. Karen Cullen, CHILD PSYCHOLOGY,
(2011) Icon Books , UK and USA
3.
Alain de Botton, THE ARCHITECTURE OF
HAPPINESS, 1st Edition, (2008, April) First Vintage International,
Vintage Books, USA
4.
Tara Bennett-Goleman, EMOTIONAL
ALCHEMY, (2001) Three Rivers Press, New York
5.
Josefina E. Gaerlan, Delia A. Limpingco
and Geraldine E. Tria, PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR, 3rd
Edition, ( 2017) Ken Incorporated, Quezon City , Philippines
6.
Don Norman, THE DESIGN OF EVERYDAY
THINGS, (2013) , Basic Books , USA
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Alicia Hernandez-Kahayon and Ma. Rita
Teresa Villacarlos-Berba, PSYCHOLOGY TOWARDS A NEW MILLENIUM, (2009) National
Bookstore, Philippines
8.
Jason Pomeroy, SKYCOURT AND SKYGARDEN,
Greening the Urban Habitat ( 2014) Routliedge, New York
9.
Richard Sennett, THE FALL OF THE PUBLIC
MAN, (1976) Penguin Books Ltd, England
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Kevin Lynch, IMAGE OF THE CITY, ( 1990)
The MIT Press, United States
Websites:
1.
Philippine Statistic Authority,
“Population of the City of Manila climbed to 1.7 Million ( Results from the
2010 Census of Population and Housing. (released July 26, 2013).
2.
The Effects of Population Density and
Noise, Retrieved on Website (September 16,2015)
3.
City of Manila Official Website,
Retrieved Setember 10, 2015
4.
Arch Felino A. Palafox, Jr. “Parks and
Open Spaces”, Manila Times, Retrieved September 15, 2015 at Website:
6.
Landscape Network: LANDSCAPE NOISE
REDUCTION: Four Ways to Design for Peace and Quite
Online Articles:
1.
Brian Christens & Paul W. Speer,
Vanderbilt University: Predicting Violent Crime Using Urban and Suburban
Densities, Retrieved as internet article on September 17, 2015 at
2.
Crime prevention
through environmental design, Wikipedia, Retrieved September 16, 2015 thru
website:
3.
Philippine Official Gazzette, Republic
Act No. 10630: “An Act Establishing a Comprehensive Juvenile Justice and
Welfare System, Creating the Juvenile justice and Welfare Council under the
Department of Social Welfare and Development, Appropriating Funds Therefore, and
for Other Purposes.”
4.
Psychological Musings, Effects of Population Density and Noise
5.
Published Research Paper on Population
Density and Noise by Alycia Moss PSY/460, January 4, 2012, Dr. Monetha
Williams.
